Week 10

KAEDAH PENGAJARAN

Ada dua perkataan yang hampir-hampir sama maksudnya dengan kaedah dan ia memang tergolong dalam kaedah juga, iaituteknik dan pendekatan. Mok Soon Seng (1992) mengatakan pendekatan ialah cara mendekati sesuatu mata pelajaran. Iaitu cara bagaimana suatu mata pelajaran diajar berdasarkan objektifnya. Jadi ia merupakan satu set teori yang sistematik. Kaedah pula ialah satu siri tindakan yang sistematik dengan tujuan mecapai objektif pelajaran dalam jangka masa pendek. Kaedah mengajar ialah cara mendekati sesuatu objektif pelajaran dengan langkah penyampaian yang tersusun (Mok Soon Seng 1992). Manakala teknik pula ialah kemahiran guru dalam pengelolan dan pelaksanaan kaedah mengajar dalam sesuatu aktiviti pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Mengikut Azman Wan Chik (1987) teknik itu apa yang dilihat dalam bilik darjah. Kalau guru mengajar bahasa dengan menggunakan alat-alat komunikasi canggih dalam makmal bahasa, maka itu satu teknik. Sekiranya seorang guru Pendidikan Islam mengajar pelajar menghafaz Al-Qur`an dengan mendengar bacaan dalam pita kaset, maka ini dikatakan teknik.

FAEDAH-FAEDAH OBJEKTIF PENGAJARAN

· membatu guru mengenalpasti apa yang hendak diajar dan memandu mereka dalam membuat pemilihan kaedah/strtegi pengajaran-pembelajaran termasuk jenis-jenis bantuan teknologi pendidikan yang sesuai digunakan.

· memberi asas kepada guru dalam menilai pelaksanaan rancangan pengajaran, keberkesanan pengajaran dan pencapaian (prestasi) pelajar-pelajar.

· memberi asas kepada guru dalam melaksanakn pengajaran pemulihan atau penggayaan kepada pelajar-pelajar yang memerlukannya.

· menyedarkan pelajar-pelajar tentang apa yangdiharapkan dicapai oleh mereka pada akhir pembelajaran, justeru diharap mereka akan lebih peka dalam mempertingkatkan pembelajaran.

Dua Jenis Objektif

· Objektif Am

· Objektif Spesifik

KOMPONEN-KOMPONEN OBJEKTIF PENGAJARAN

· Pelaksana

· Perlakuan

· Hasil perlakuan

· Syarat perlakuan

· Kriteria perlakuan

CONTOH-CONTOH KATA KERJA YANG MENYATAKAN OBJEKTIF PEMGAJARAN

Domain Kognitif

· Pengetahuan: mendefinisi, menamakan, mengenalpasti, menyenaraikan, melabelkan, memilih, menyesuiakan, menyatakan, menulis, menjelaskan.

· pemahaman: membezakan, menukarkan, menganggarkan,menelaah, menulis, menjelaskan.

· Aplikasi: mengira, mengubah, menginterpretasi, menyediakan, melakar, melukis, menyelesai, menggunakan, menunjukkan, mengeluar, mengaitkan.

· Analisis: mengasingkan, memberi contoh, memilih, membezakan, mengenalpasti, mengaitkan, memecah, menunjukkan , membuat ringkasan,membuat inferens.

· Sintesis: mengkategorikan, meggabungkan, menyusun semula, menerangkan, merancang, membina semula, menyatakan semula, mengarang, meringkaskan, menulis semula.

· Penilaian: menilai, membezakan, membincangkan, membahas, menghuraikan, memberi hujah, membuat kesimpulan, membuat justifikasi, menyokong,mengutarakan.

Domain Psikomotor
membuat,memasang, membina, mengubah, membersih,melicinkankan, mencampurkan, menanam, mengecat, membuatcontoh, menggunakan, menyediakan, menyiapkan, menggerakkan, melekatkan, menyusun, menjaga, menghidang, mengemas, membungkus, merawat, memperbaiki.

Domain Afektif
mengamalkan, menunjukkan, mematuhi, melakukan, menyenaraikan, mencadangkan, berkongsi, menonjolkan, membandingkan, membezakan, menghubungkan, mengaitkan.

CONTOH-CONTOH OBJEKTIF PENGAJARAN YANG MENGANDUNGI KELIMA-LIMA KOMPONEN TAKSONOMI BLOOM

· Setiap pelajar dapat mengira dengan tepat dalam masa tiga minit jumlah dividen yang diperolehi daripada sesuatu pelaburan berdasarkan kepada data yang diberikan.

· Semua pelajar dapat menyatakan secara bertulis tanpa merujuk kepadabuku teks, sekurang-kurangnya 3 jenis kesalahan yang sering terdapat dalam Imbangan Duga dan 3 cara untuk mengatasinya.

· Tiap-tiap pelajar boleh menunjukkan dengan betul cara-cara merekod maklumat dalam buku tunai.

· Bekerja dalm kumpulan 5 orang, setiap kumpulan dapat menghasilkan satu kertas projek sepanjang 2000 patah perkataan pada saiz kertas A4 mengenai "Penubuhan syarikat Berhad dan pembahagian syer kepada ahli yang terlibat.

· Setip pelajar, dapat menunjukkan kebolehan bekerjasama dan berinteraksi secara telus melalui sesi perbincangan dalam kumpulan 6 orang mengenai penyediaan penyata pendaoatan bagi sesebuah syarikat yang dibuat dalam masa 20 minit, mengikut senarai semak pemerhatian yang disediakan.

Beberapa Prinsip Pengajaran

· Pengajaran perlu dirancnag dan disediakan mengikut tahunan, semetara, mingguan dan harian.

· Isi kandungan pelajaran berasaskan sukatan peljaran buku teksdan rujukan serta keperluan peperiksaan (sekirnya ada) dan dikaitkan dengan pengetahuan dan pengalaman sedia da pelajar daripada apa yang tahu kepada yang tidak tahu, daripada yang senang kepada yang kompleks, daripada yang konkrit kepada yang abstrak.

· Pelajar-pelajar perlu dimotivasi dengan menggunakan sebanyak deria rangsangan yang boleh.

· Pengajaran perlu berpusat kepada pelajar, iaitu sebagai klien/pelanggan utama guru penglibatan aktif pelajar dalam proses P&P penting melalui pelbagai aktiviti pembelajaran.

· Strategi/kaedah pengaran perlu dipelbagaikan, sesuai dengan topik/isi pelajaran yang diajar serta stail pembelajaran pelajar guru berdaya lentur dan mempunyai "repertoire of teaching approaches".

· Daya pemikiran pelajar perlu sentiasa dicetuskan, tidak setakat menerima maklumat tetapi menegaskan jawapan kepada soalan-soalan Mengapa?Dan bagaimana?Pemilihan strategi/kaedah pengajaran perlu sesuai untuk tujuan ini.

Berapa Prinsip Pembelajaran

· Pelajar perlu bersedia untuk belajar (kesediaan pembelajaran)

· Pelajar perlu faham sebab-sebab untuk belajar (motivasi untuk pelajar)

· Isi pelajaran cukup mudah untuk dikuasai dan cukup susah untuk mencabar/merangsang pelajar (tahap kesukaran yang isi pelajaran sesuai).

· Pembelajran dilakuakn sendiri oleh pelajar melalui aktiviti-aktiviti pembelajaran termasuk penyelesaian masalah, bukan dilakukan oleh guru atua orang lain (pembelajaran tidak boleh diwakilkan).

· Persekitaran pembelajaran - suasana sekolah, bilik darjah, sumber-sumber pendidikan, guru-guru penyayang sesuai dan cukup (persekitaran pembelajaran yang conducive).

· Guru bertindak sebagai penggerak, pendorong, penyokong dan pemudah cara kepada pelajar (sokongan emosi dan intelek yang berterusan).

PENTINGNYA KAEDAH PENGAJARAN

"Perbezaan dalam pembelajaran yang berlaku kepada pelajar berkait rapat dengan BAGAIMANA bahan bahan pelajaran dikemukakan. ‘BAGAIMANA’ diertikan sebagai teknik pengajaran ini dapat menghasilkan perbezaan yang signifikan kepada kejayaan pembelajaran pelajar."

(P.B. Guild and S. Garger: Marching to Different Drums)

BEBERAPA KAEDAH PENTING PENGAJARAN

 Kaedah Menyoal

 Kaedah kuliah/syarahan

 Kaedah perbincangan

 kaedah sumbang saran

 kaedah perbahasan

 kaedah demonstrasi

 kaedah projek

 Kaedah kes

 Kaedah penyelesaian masalah

 kaedah permainan

 Kaedah simulasi

KAEDAH MENYOAL

 wahana utama interaksi dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran

 untuk menerokai pengalaman/pengetahuan pelajar

 untuk meningkatkan ingatan isi-isi pelajaran yang penting

 untuk tujuan ulangkaji

 untuk merangsang pemikiran pelajar dari tahap pengetahuan hingga tahap penilaian dan domain kognitif

 perlu wujud dalam semua proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran

Week 9

INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY

When we deal with information, we do so in steps. One way to think of this is to picture the process of acquiring, retaining, and using information as an activity called information processing. Information comes from the outside world into the sensory registers in the human brain. This input consists of things perceived by our senses. We are not consciously aware of most of the things we perceive; we become aware of them only if we consciously direct our attention to them. When we do focus our attention on them, they are placed in our working memory.

In cognitive psychology, memory is usually divided into three storage systems: sensory, short-term, and long-term.

• Sensory Memory: The sensory memory retains an exact copy of what is seen or heard (visual and auditory). It only lasts for a few seconds, while some theorize it last only 300 milliseconds. It has unlimited capacity.
• Short-Term Memory (STM) - Selective attention determines what information moves from sensory memory to short-term memory. STM is most often stored as sounds, especially in recalling words, but may be stored as images. It works basically the same as a computer's RAM (Random Access Memory) in that it provides a working space for short computations and then transfers it to other parts of the memory system or discards it. Is thought to be about seven bits in length, that is, we normally remember seven items. STM is vulnerable to interruption or interference.
• Long-Term Memory - This is relatively permanent storage. Information is stored on the basis of meaning and importance.

STM is characterized by:

• A limited capacity of up to seven pieces of independent information.
• The brief duration of these items last from 3 to 20 seconds.
• Decay appears to be the primary mechanism of memory loss.

After entering sensory memory, a limited amount of information is transferred into short-term memory. Within STM, there are three basic operations:

• Iconic memory - The ability to hold visual images.
• Acoustic memory - The ability to hold sounds. Acoustic memory can be held longer than iconic memory.
• Working memory - An active process to keep it until it is put to use (think of a phone number you'll repeat to yourself until you can dial it on the phone). Note that the goal is not really to move the information from STM to LTM, but merely put the information to immediate use.

The process of transferring information from STM to LTM involves the encoding or consolidation of information. This is not a function of time, that is, the longer a memory stayed in STM, the more likely it was to be placed into LTM; but on organizing complex information in STM before it can be encoded into LTM. In this process of organization, the meaningfulness or emotional content of an item may play a greater role in its retention into LTM. As instructional designers, we must find ways to make learning relevant and meaningful enough for the learner to make the important transfer of information to long-term memory.

Also, on a more concrete level, the use of chunking has been proven to be a significant aid for enhancing the STM transfer to LTM. Remember, STM's capacity is limited to about seven items, regardless of the complexity of those items. Chunking allows the brain to automatically group certain items together, hence the ability to remember and learn better.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

The knowledge we store in LTM affects our perceptions of the world, and influences what information in the environment we attend to. LTM provides the framework to which we attach new knowledge. It contrasts with short-term and perceptual memory in that information can be stored for extended periods of time and the limits of its capacity are not known.

Schemas are mental models of the world. Information in LTM is stored in interrelated networks of these schemas. These, in turn, form intricate knowledge structures. Related schemas are linked together, and information that activates one schema also activates others that are closely linked. This is how we recall relevant knowledge when similar information is presented. These schemas guide us by diverting our attention to relevant information and allow us to disregard what is not important.

Since LTM storage is organized into schemas, instructional designers should activate existing schemas before presenting new information. This can be done in a variety of ways, including graphic organizers, curiosity-arousing questions, movies, etc.

LTM also has a strong influence on perception through top-down processing - our prior knowledge affects how we perceive sensory information. Our expectations regarding a particular sensory experience influence how we interpret it. This is how we develop bias. Also, most optical illusions take advantage of this fact.

An important factor for retention of learned information in LTM is rehearsal that provides transfer of learning.

Week 8

CONSTRUCTIVISM AND SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM

Learners actively construct their own knowledge and meaning from their experiences.

(Fosnot, 1996: Steffe & Gale, 1995)

Types of Constructivism

• Cognitive Constructivism

• Social Constructivism

Cognitive Constructivism

• Associated with information processing and it’s reliance on the component processes of cognition.

• Knowledge acquisition is an adaptive process and results from active cognizing by the learner.

• Learning is the process of building accurate internal models or representations that mirror or reflect external structures that exist in the real world.

• Perspective on learning focuses on

-The procedures or processes of learning

-How what is learned is represented or symbolized in the mind

-H -How these representations are organized within the mind

Cognitive constructivism – authentic experiences are essential so that individual can construct an accurate representation of the real world.

A Theory of knowledge acquisition occurs amid 4 assumptions:

· Learning involves active cognitive processing

· Learning is adaptive

· Learning is subjective

· Learning involves both social/cultural and individual processes

S So

cial Constructivism

· Emphasizes the important of culture and context in understanding what occurs in society and constructing knowledge based on this understanding.

· Developmental theories of Vygotsky, Bruner and Bandura’s social cognitive theory

· Reality – reality is constructed through human activity

· Knowledge – knowledge is a human product and is socially and culturally constructed. Individual create meaning through their interactions with each other and with the environment they live in.

· Learning – view learning as a social process. Meaningful learning occurs when individual are engaged in social activities

GenGeneral perspectives of Social Constructivism on learning

· Cognitive tools perspective

· Idea-based social constructivism

· Pragmatic/emergent approach

· Transactional/situated cognitive perspectives

Co Cognitive tools perspective

· Focuses on learning of cognitive skills and strategies.

· Students engage in social learning activities that involve hands-on project-based methods. They produce a product and as a group impose meaning on it through the social learning process.

Vy Vgotsky’s Constructivism

· Social interaction in development of cognition

· Social learning precedes development

· MKO (More Knowledgeable Other)

· ZPD – distance between the actual development level as determined by the independent problem solving and level of potential development as determined through problem solving under MKO

· ZPD provide scaffolding

· Social interaction leads to increased knowledge

· Emphasized the important of culture and social context for cognitive development